Species $A$ $(-)$ and Species $B$ $(O)$ show which of the following interactions?

Explain predation in detail.

Consider the following four statements and select the option which includes all the correct ones $:-$
$(a)$ Sparrow eating any seed is no less a predator.
$(b)$ Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator.
$(c)$ Nearly $25 \%$ of all insects are known to be phytophagous.
$(d)$ Thorns are the most common morphological defence mechanism.
Options $:-$

Which characteristic is observed in the $Gause's$ Competitive Exclusion Principle?

Copepods are . . . . . . .

Death of the host shall be disastrous to: