Which of the following groups does not show $(+R)$ effect?

Which of the following statements are not correct?
$a$. The energy of resonance hybrid structure is higher than that of the possible canonical structures of the molecule.
$b$. When inductive effect and electromeric effect operate in opposite directions,electromeric effect predominates.
$c$. When the $\pi$ electrons of the multiple bond are transferred to that atom to which the attacking reagent does not get attached,it is known as $+E$ effect.
$d$. The resonance structures with separation of opposite charges are more stable.

How is the partial charge produced by the inductive effect represented?

Identify the species from the following that exhibits no-bond resonance (hyperconjugation).

What is the difference between inductive effect and resonance effect?

Mesomeric effect involves